Translation is the communication of the meaning The field of semantics is often understood as a branch of linguistics, but non-idealized meaning as a type of semantics is more accurately a branch of psychology and ethics. Meaning in so far is it is objectified by not considering particular situations and the real intentions of speakers and writers examines the ways in which words, phrases, and of a source language text with the equivalent Dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence are two approaches to translation. Dynamic equivalence attempts to convey the thought expressed in a source text (if necessary, at the expense of literalness, original word order, the source text's grammatical voice, etc.), while formal equivalence attempts to render the text word-for-word (if necessary, target language Categories: Language acquisition | Language education | Translation | Compilers translation (text) to help a reader understand a foreign (source) language text.^[1] Translation dates from the appearance of written literature Literature,, is the art of written works. Literally translated, the word means acquaintance with letters (as in the Arts and Letters"). In Western culture the most basic written literary types include fiction and nonfiction; ^[2] translations of parts of the Sumerian Sumer was a civilization and historical region in southern Mesopotamia, modern Iraq. It is the earliest known civilization in the world and is known as the Cradle of Civilization. The Sumerian civilization spanned over 3000 years and began with the first settlement of Eridu in the Ubaid period (mid 6th millennium BC) through the Uruk period (4th Epic of Gilgamesh The Epic of Gilgamesh is an epic poem from Mesopotamia and is among the earliest known works of literary writing. Scholars believe that it originated as a series of Sumerian legends and poems about the mythological hero-king Gilgamesh, which were gathered into a longer Akkadian epic much later. The most complete version existing today is preserved (ca. 2000 BCE) were found in Southwest Asian Western Asia, West Asia, Southwest Asia or Southwestern Asia are terms that describe the westernmost portion of Asia. The terms are partly coterminous with the Middle East - which describes geographical position in relation to Western Europe rather than location within Asia. Due to this perceived Eurocentrism, international organizations such as languages of the second millennium BCE.^[3]

Translation risks language contact spill-over Language contact occurs when two or more languages or varieties interact. The study of language contact is called contact linguistics of source-language idioms An idiom is an expression, word, or phrase that has a figurative meaning that is comprehended in regard to a common use of that expression that is separate from the literal meaning or definition of the words of which it is made. There are estimated to be at least 25,000 idiomatic expressions in American English and usages A style guide or style manual is a set of standards for the writing and design of documents, either for general use or for a specific publication, organization or field. The implementation of a style guide provides uniformity in style and formatting of a document into the target-language translation; this may import useful source-language calques In linguistics, a calque or loan translation is a word or phrase borrowed from another language by literal, word-for-word (Latin: "verbum pro verbo") or root-for-root translation and loanwords By contrast, a calque or loan translation is a related concept, whereby it is the meaning or idiom that is borrowed rather than the lexical item itself. The word loanword is itself a calque of the German Lehnwort, while calque is a loanword from French to the target language, enriching it.^[4]

The documentation required by businesses in the Industrial Revolution The Industrial Revolution was a period from the 18th to the 19th century where major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, and transport had a profound effect on the socioeconomic and cultural conditions starting in the United Kingdom, then subsequently spreading throughout Europe, North America, and eventually the world. The onset of the formalized the craft of translation, with attendant schools and professional associations.^[5] Today's Internet The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet Protocol Suite to serve billions of users worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope that are linked by a broad array of electronic and is a world-wide market for translation, because it facilitates product localization Language localisation can be defined as the second phase of a larger process (Internationalization and localization) of product translation and cultural adaptation (for specific countries, regions, groups) to account for differences in distinct markets. Thus, it is important not to reduce it to a mere translation activity because it involves a; approximately 75% of professional translators today work with technical documents.^[6] Since the 1940s, engineers have attempted to automate translation (machine translation Machine translation, sometimes referred to by the abbreviation MT, is a sub-field of computational linguistics that investigates the use of computer software to translate text or speech from one natural language to another. At its basic level, MT performs simple substitution of words in one natural language for words in another. Using corpus) or aid translators (computer-assisted translation Computer-assisted translation, computer-aided translation, or CAT is a form of translation wherein a human translator translates texts using computer software designed to support and facilitate the translation process); but most mechanical translation is poor.^[7]

Etymology

Etymologically Etymology is the study of the history of words, where they are from, and how their form and meaning have changed over time, translation denotes "carrying across" and "bringing across", from the source language to the target language; furthermore, the Latin Latin or sometimes Roman is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Although often considered a dead language, in view of the fact that it has no native, fluent speakers, Latin continues to be taught in schools and has been, and currently is, used in the process of new word production in modern languages from many translatio derives from translatum and transfero ("I transfer" = trans, "across" + fero, "I carry", "I bring"), which are perfect In linguistics, the perfect , occasionally called the retrospective (ret) to avoid confusion with the perfective aspect, is a combination of aspect and tense that calls a listener's attention to the consequences generated by an action, rather than just the action itself. It is distinct from the perfective, which marks an action as a single event, passive In grammar, the voice of a verb describes the relationship between the action (or state) that the verb expresses and the participants identified by its arguments (subject, object, etc.). When the subject is the agent or doer of the action, the verb is in the active voice. When the subject is the patient, target or undergoer of the action, it is participles In linguistics, a participle can be a verb or an adjective (participial phrase). It is a derivative of a non-finite verb, which can be used in compound tenses or voices, or as a modifier. Participles often share properties with other parts of speech, in particular adjectives and nouns. Linguistically, the modern Romance extinct: Anatolian · Paleo-Balkans (Dacian, , Germanic The Germanic languages are a group of related languages that constitute a branch of the Indo-European language family. The common ancestor of all the languages in this branch is Proto-Germanic, spoken in approximately the mid-1st millennium BC in Iron Age northern Europe. Proto-Germanic, along with all of its descendants, is characterized by a, and Slavic The Slavic languages , a group of closely related languages of the Slavic peoples and a subgroup of Indo-European languages, have speakers in most of Eastern Europe, in much of the Balkans, in parts of Central Europe, and in the northern part of Asia European languages Most languages of Europe belong to the Indo-European language family; another major family is the Finno-Ugric. The Turkic family also has several European members, while the North and South Caucasian families are important in the southeastern extremity of geographical Europe. Basque is a language isolate directly related to ancient Aquitanian, have generally formed native equivalent Dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence are two approaches to translation. Dynamic equivalence attempts to convey the thought expressed in a source text (if necessary, at the expense of literalness, original word order, the source text's grammatical voice, etc.), while formal equivalence attempts to render the text word-for-word (if necessary, terms for this concept, based upon the Latin models of transfero ("I transfer") and traduco ("I lead across" and "I bring across").^[8]

Additionally, the Ancient Greek Ancient Greek is the historical stage in the development of the Greek language spanning the Archaic , Classical (c. 5th–4th centuries BC), and Hellenistic (c. 3rd century BC – 6th century AD) periods of ancient Greece and the ancient world. It is predated in the 2nd millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek. Its Hellenistic phase is known as Koine (& term for "translation", μετάφρασις (metaphrasis, "a speaking across"), supplied English English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into South-East Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria. Following the economic, political, military, scientific, cultural, and colonial influence of Great Britain and the United Kingdom from the 18th century, and of with metaphrase Metaphrase is a translation term referring to literal translation, i.e., "word by word and line by line" translation. In everyday usage, metaphrase means literalism; however, metaphrase is also the translation of poetry into prose. Unlike "paraphrase," which has an ordinary use in literature theory, the term "metaphrase& (a "literal translation Literal translation, also known as direct translation in everyday usage has the meaning of the rendering of text from one language to another "word-for-word" rather than conveying the sense of the original. However in translation studies literal translation has the meaning of technical translation of scientific, technical, technological", a "word-for-word" translation) — as contrasted with paraphrase Paraphrase is restatement of a text or passages, using other words. The term "paraphrase" derives via the Latin "paraphrasis" from the Greek para phraseïn, meaning "additional manner of expression". The act of paraphrasing is also called "paraphrasis." ("a saying in other words", from παράφρασις, paraphrasis).^[9] In contemporary usage, metaphrase corresponds to "formal equivalence", and paraphrase corresponds to "dynamic equivalence."^[10]

The Rosetta Stone The Rosetta Stone is an Ancient Egyptian artifact which was instrumental in advancing modern understanding of Egyptian hieroglyphic writing. The stone is a Ptolemaic era stele with carved text made up of three translations of a single passage: two in Egyptian language scripts and one in classical Greek. It was created in 196 BC, discovered by the is the secular icon International standards have been developed to harmonize icons and symbols. These can be seen particularly in international airports and for roadside signs to assist travellers. Icons are also becoming standardised for consumer electronics and automobile controls for the art and craft of translation; this trilingual stele was the key to the decipherment of the Egyptian hieroglyphs Egyptian hieroglyphs (pronounced /ˈhaɪrəɡlɪf/ was a formal writing system used by the ancient Egyptians that contained a combination of logographic and alphabetic elements. Egyptians used cursive hieroglyphics for religious literature on papyrus and wood. Less formal variations of the script, called hieratic and demotic, are technically not by Thomas Young Thomas Young was an English genius and polymath, admired by among others Herschel and Einstein. He is famous with the public for having partly deciphered Egyptian hieroglyphs before Champollion did, Jean-François Champollion Jean-François Champollion was a French classical scholar, philologist and orientalist, decipherer of the Egyptian hieroglyphs, and others.^[11] Indeed, “Rosetta Stone” has become a symbol for a “translator’s key” and thus an element of the coat of arms A coat of arms strictly speaking is a distinctive design painted on a shield, but the term is also broadly applied to the heraldic achievement consisting of the shield and certain accessories; in either sense, the design is a symbol unique to a person, family, corporation or state. Such displays can also be called armorial bearings or devices, or of the Defense Language Institute The Defense Language Institute is a United States Department of Defense (DoD) educational and research institution, which provides linguistic and cultural instruction to the Department of Defense, other Federal Agencies and numerous and varied other customers. The Defense Language Institute is responsible for the Defense Language Program, and the of the US government.

Theory

History of Western theory

Discussions of the theory and practice of translation began in antiquity Ancient history is the study of the written past from the beginning of recorded human history in the Old World to the Early Middle Ages in Europe, and show remarkable contemporary continuity. The Ancient Greeks Ancient Greece is the civilization belonging to the period of Greek history lasting from the Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to 146 BC and the Roman conquest of Greece after the Battle of Corinth. At the center of this time period is Classical Greece, which flourished during the 5th to 4th centuries BC, at first under Athenian (8th c. BCE–AD 6th c.) distinguished between metaphrase Metaphrase is a translation term referring to literal translation, i.e., "word by word and line by line" translation. In everyday usage, metaphrase means literalism; however, metaphrase is also the translation of poetry into prose. Unlike "paraphrase," which has an ordinary use in literature theory, the term "metaphrase& (literal translation Literal translation, also known as direct translation in everyday usage has the meaning of the rendering of text from one language to another "word-for-word" rather than conveying the sense of the original. However in translation studies literal translation has the meaning of technical translation of scientific, technical, technological) and paraphrase Paraphrase is restatement of a text or passages, using other words. The term "paraphrase" derives via the Latin "paraphrasis" from the Greek para phraseïn, meaning "additional manner of expression". The act of paraphrasing is also called "paraphrasis." (“sense translation”); which the 17th-century English poet A poet is a person who writes poetry. A poet's work can be literal, meaning that his work is derived from a specific event, or metaphorical, meaning that his work can take on many meanings and forms. Poets have existed since antiquity, in nearly all languages, and have produced works that vary greatly in different cultures and time periods and translator John Dryden John Dryden was an influential English poet, literary critic, translator, and playwright who dominated the literary life of Restoration England to such a point that the period came to be known in literary circles as the Age of Dryden. Walter Scott named him "Glorious John." (1631–1700) then proposed as the essence of translation — the judicious blending of the two modes of phrasing, when selecting, counterpart target-language idioms, or equivalents Dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence are two approaches to translation. Dynamic equivalence attempts to convey the thought expressed in a source text (if necessary, at the expense of literalness, original word order, the source text's grammatical voice, etc.), while formal equivalence attempts to render the text word-for-word (if necessary,, for expressing the idioms of the source language:

When [words] appear . . . literally graceful, it were an injury to the author that they should be changed. But since . . . what is beautiful in one [language] is often barbarous, nay!, sometimes nonsense, in another, it would be unreasonable to limit a translator to the narrow compass of his author’s words: ’tis enough if he choose out some expression which does not vitiate the sense.^[8]

Dryden cautioned, however, against the license of "imitation", i.e. of adapted translation: “When a painter copies from the life . . . he has no privilege to alter features and lineaments. . . . "^[10]This general-concept formulation of translation — equivalence — is as accurate a definition as any, since the times of Cicero and Horace, in first-century BCE Ancient Rome; where the former famously cautioned the translator against translating verbum pro verbo (word-for-word).^[10]

Despite occasional theoretical divergences, the art, craft, and practice of translation remain little changed since antiquity. Excepting the extreme metaphrase translators of the early Christian period and the Middle Ages, the historical adaptor-translators, especially of pre-Classical Rome and the 18th century, generally were prudent and flexible in seeking Dynamic and formal equivalence — literal where possible, paraphrastic where required — for the original meaning and the crucial values of style, verse form, concordance with music, in documents, film, and articulation.^[10]

The translator’s praxis seeks to preserve the source-language context, by reproducing the original order of sememes and word order; (re) interpreting the source-language grammar only when required. The grammatical differences among "fixed-word-order" languages, ^[12] e.g. English, French, and German; and "free-word-order" languages^[13] e.g. Greek, Latin, Polish, and Russian, offer no such impediment.^[10] When the target language lacks terms found only in the source language, the translator borrows source-language originals for the target-language translation. Such linguistic borrowing enriched the target language with calques and loanwords, that then are shared among languages; thus are there few concepts that are untranslatable among the modern European languages.^[10][14]

Generally, the greater the interaction between two languages, and then among the two and a third language, the greater likelihood that a translation might contain a greater number of metaphrase usages than of paraphrase usages. Nonetheless, the translator is aware that shifts in "ecological niches" of words, a common etymology might be inaccurate in denoting a current meaning in either one of the languages. For example, the English word actual, should not be confused with the cognate French actuel ("present", "current"), nor with the Polish aktualny ("present", "current"),^[15] nor with the Russian актуальный ("urgent, topical").

The translator's cultural role of translating cultural values has been discussed since the time of Terence, the second-century Roman adaptor of Greek comedies. The translator's role is active and creative, not mechanical, hence is an art and an intellectual craft, because the ideologic continuity is the concept of parallel creation, mentioned by critics such as Cicero. Therefore, in commenting upon the art required for translation, Dryden said that "Translation is a type of drawing after life. . . . " Moreover, comparing the translator with the musician and the actor dates from Samuel Johnson’s remark about Alexander Pope playing Homer on a flageolet, whilst Homer, himself, played a bassoon.^[15] Nevertheless, in doubting the artistry of translation, in the 13th century, Roger Bacon wrote that if a translation is to be true, the translator must know both languages and the science (subject) to translate; upon finding that few translators fulfilled the qualifications, he advocated abolishing translation and translators.^[16]

German Bible translator Martin Luther is credited with being the first European translator to translate upon the presumption that the translation-narrative is for the reader of the target language. L.G. Kelly, reports that since Johann Gottfried Herder in the 18th century, "it has been axiomatic" that one works (translates) only toward his own language.^[17] Compounding the intellectual demands of translation, is the translator’s knowledge that no one dictionary, nor any one thesaurus is solely adequate for translation. In the Essay on the Principles of Translation (1790), Alexander Tytler, emphasized that assiduous reading is a more comprehensive guide to a language than are dictionaries. The same point, but appended of listening to the spoken language, had earlier been made, in 1783, by “the last Latin poet” of Poland, Onufry Andrzej Kopczyński, of the Society for Elementary Books.^[18]

The translator’s special role in society is described in the posthumous 1803 essay by "Poland's La Fontaine", the Roman Catholic Primate of Poland, poet, encyclopedist, author of the first Polish novel, and French and Greek translator, Ignacy Krasicki:

Religious texts

The translation of religious texts was an early function of translators in most cultures; to wit, the Buddhist monks who translated the Indian sutras into Chinese often skewed the translations to better reflect China's culture, such as emphasizing filial piety. A famous mistranslation of the Bible is the rendering of the Hebrew word קֶרֶן (keren), which has several denotations such as "horn", misapplied in the context wherein it denotes "beam of light"; resultantly, artists have depicted Moses the Lawgiver with horns, as in the sculpture by Michelangelo. Some anti-Semite Christians used such depictions to propagate anti-Semitism, claiming that Jews were horned devils.

A seminal Western translation is the that of the Old Testament into Greek, in the 3rd century BCE, which produced the Septuagint (ca. 250 BCE); the title alludes to the seventy translators commissioned to translate the Bible in Alexandria. The high-quality translations of the Septuagint made it the source text for the later translation of the Bible to Latin, Coptic, Armenian, Georgian, and others.

The 4th-century translation of the Greek-language Bible into the the Latin Vulgate Bible, by Saint Jerome, became the Roman Catholic Church’s official text for centuries. Then, in the periods preceding and contemporary with the Protestant Reformation (1517–1648) the theologically new churches translated it into their respective vernacular European languages — because of their different theologic interpretations of “crucial” words and passages. Those differences of opinion propelled the schism of Western Christianity into Roman Catholic and Protestant Churches; hence the German-language Luther Bible (1534), Jakub Wujek’s 1590 Polish translation of the Vulgate Bible, and the English King James Bible (1611).

History of Asian theory

There is a separate tradition of translation in South Asia and East Asia (primarily modern India and China), especially connected with the rendering of religious texts — particularly Buddhist texts — and with the governance of the Chinese empire. Classical Indian translation is characterized by loose adaptation, rather than the closer translation more commonly found in Europe, and Chinese translation theory identifies various criteria and limitations in translation.

In the East Asia Sinosphere (sphere of Chinese cultural influence), more important than translation per se has been the use and reading of Chinese texts, which also had substantial influence on the Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese languages, with substantial borrowings of vocabulary and writing system. Notable is Japanese Kanbun, which is a system of glossing Chinese texts for Japanese speakers.

Fidelity vs. fluency

Textual fidelity (faithfulness) and linguistic fluency are the two qualities for which the translator strives, especially in literary translation, although they sometimes are at odds; thus the observation of 17th-century French philosopher and writer Gilles Ménage (1613-92) about les belles infidèles (the faithless beauties) likening translations to women — either beautiful or faithful, but not both.^[20]

• Fidelity denotes the extent to which a translation faithfully, truthfully, and accurately, renders the meaning of the source text, without adding to or subtracting from it, without emphasizing or de-emphasizing any part of the meaning (denotation and connotation), and otherwise without distorting it.

• Fluency denotes the extent to which a translation, to the native speaker of the target language, appears to originally have been written in the target language, by conforming to the grammar, spelling, syntax, and idiom of the target language.

A “faithful translation” meets the first criterion; an “idiomatic translation” meets the second criterion. The criteria for judging the fidelity of a translation vary by subject, how well written is the original text, the type, function, and purpose of the text, its literary qualities, and its social and historical context.

The criteria for judging the fluency of a translation are straightforward: an unidiomatic translation “sounds wrong” to the ear, especially a literal translation manufactured with a translation machine, which usually produces a nonsense document with only a humorous value, (see Round-trip translation); nevertheless, in certain contexts, the translator strives to produce a literal translation. Literary translators and translators of religious and historic texts often adhere as closely as possible to the source text; in so doing, he or she stretches the target language into an unidiomatic translation. Likewise, a literary translator might adopt source-language words and expressions to provide local color to the translation.

In recent decades, advocates of such non-fluent translation include the French scholar Antoine Berman (1942–91), who identified twelve deforming tendencies inherent to most prose translations,^[21] and the American theorist Lawrence Venuti, who recommends that translators apply foreignizing translation techniques instead of domesticating techniques, that the translator strive to maintain the foreignness of the text in translation.^[22]

Theories of non-fluent-translation employ concepts from German Romanticism; the notable foreignization influence is the German theologian and philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher. In the lecture On the Different Methods of Translation (1813), he distinguished among translation methods that move “the writer toward [the reader]” (fluency), and extreme translation methods that move the “reader toward [the author]” (fidelity) in his fidelity to the foreignness of the source text. Schleiermacher favoured the latter approach, a nationalist preference motivated by German opposition to France's cultural domination, and to promote German literature.

Contemporary Western translation practice is dominated by the concepts of fidelity and fluency, but such has not always been the case, especially in pre-Classical Rome and in the 18th century, when translators transgressed from translation to literary adaptation. Nonetheless, in Eastern translation tradition, the adapted translation is common. Thus the Indian epic, the Ramayana, exists in versions particular to the Indian languages to which it has been translated, and the stories are different, particular to each culture. This adaptational difference might relate be devotional, in respect for the prophetic religious passages, or in vocation effort to instruct the unbeliever.^{[citation needed]} Like examples are in medieval Christian literature, which adjusted the Hebrew and Aramaic texts to the culture of the reader.

Equivalence

The question of fidelity vs. transparency is formulated as "formal equivalence" and "dynamic equivalence", coinages by the translator Eugene Nida, used to describe ways of translating the Christian Bible; yet they are applicable to any translation.

• Formal equivalence corresponds to "metaphrase"; "dynamic equivalence" to "paraphrase".

• Dynamic equivalence ("functional equivalence") conveys the source text’s essential thought — if necessary — at the expense of literalism, original sememe and word order, i.e. the source text’s active vs. passive voice grammar, et cetera.

In contrast, "formal equivalence" (literal translation) renders the text literally (word-for-word, as in the classical Latin verbum pro verbo) — if necessary, at the expense of the target language’s natural grammar. There is, however, no sharp boundary between dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence, because they represent the spectrum of translation. Each equivalence is accordingly used — sometimes simultaneously — to communicate the message of the source-language text. A competent (faithful, true, and accurate) translation is the judicious blending of dynamic and formal equivalents, as Dryden recommended in the 17th century.^[23] Common pitfalls in translation, especially when practiced by inexperienced translators, involve false equivalents such as "false friends" and false cognates.

Back-translation

A "back-translation" is the reversion of a translated text to its source language; in the context of a machine translation, a back-translation is a "round-trip translation." The comparison of a back-translation to its source-language original text is used as a quality control measure for the (target language) translation.^[24]

The American writer Mark Twain provided humorously telling evidence with his back-translation of a French translation of his short story, “The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County” (1865), which he published, thirty-eight years later, in The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County: In English, Then in French, and Then Clawed Back into a Civilized Language Once More by Patient, Unremunerated Toil (1903). The French translation, and a “Private History of the ‘Jumping Frog’ Story”, the latter included a synopsis adaptation, that Twain said appeared, unattributed to him, its author, in Professor Sidgwick’s Greek Prose Composition, under the title, “The Athenian and the Frog”, which for a time was presumed as the ancient Greek precursor to “The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County”, by Mark Twain.^[25]

In cases wherein an historic document survives only in translation, researchers sometimes attempt the reconstruction of the original source-language document (text) with a back-translation. An example is the novel The Saragossa Manuscript, by Jan Potocki (1761–1815), a Polish aristocrat, a polymath, and polyglot, who wrote the novel in French, and anonymously published fragments in 1804 and in the 1813–14 period. Portions of the original French-language manuscript were lost; however, the missing fragments survived in the 1847 Polish translation by Edmund Chojecki, from a complete French-language edition. Complete versions of the French-language Saragossa Manuscript novel have since been produced, based upon extant French-language fragments, and French-language versions back-translated from Chojecki’s Polish translation.^[26]

Hence, when historians suspect that an historical document is a translation, then a back-translation to the (hypothetical) source language might provide supporting evidence — idioms, puns, peculiar grammar usages, etc. — that derive from the original language. For example, the known text of the Till Eulenspiegel folk tales is in High German, but contains puns that work only when back-translated to Low German; evidence that a document originally written in Low German was translated to High German by a metaphrastic translator who took many textual liberties. Similarly, supporters of Aramaic primacy — that the Christian New Testament and its Bronze Age sources were originally written in the Aramaic language — seek to prove their case by showing that difficult passages in the extant Ancient Greek text of the New Testament are more intelligible when back-translated to Aramaic, that, for example, some incomprehensible references are Aramaic puns untranslatable into Ancient Greek.

Literary translation

Translation of literary works (novels, short stories, plays, poems, etc.) is considered a literary pursuit in its own right. Notable in Canadian literature specifically as translators are figures such as Sheila Fischman, Robert Dickson and Linda Gaboriau, and the Governor General's Awards annually present prizes for the best English-to-French and French-to-English literary translations.

Other writers, among many who have made a name for themselves as literary translators, include Vasily Zhukovsky, Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński, Vladimir Nabokov, Jorge Luis Borges, Robert Stiller and Haruki Murakami.

History

The first important translation in the West was that of the Septuagint,^[27] a collection of Jewish Scriptures translated into Koine Greek in Alexandria between the 3rd and 1st centuries BCE. The dispersed Jews had forgotten their ancestral language and needed Greek versions (translations) of their Scriptures.

Throughout the Middle Ages, Latin was the lingua franca of the western learned world. The 9th-century Alfred the Great, king of Wessex in England, was far ahead of his time in commissioning vernacular Anglo-Saxon translations of Bede's Ecclesiastical History and Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy. Meanwhile the Christian Church frowned on even partial adaptations of the standard Latin Bible, St. Jerome's Vulgate of ca. 384 CE.^[28]

In Asia, the spread of Buddhism led to large-scale ongoing translation efforts spanning well over a thousand years. The Tangut Empire was especially efficient in such efforts; exploiting the then newly invented block printing, and with the full support of the government (contemporary sources describe the Emperor and his mother personally contributing to the translation effort, alongside sages of various nationalities), the Tanguts took mere decades to translate volumes that had taken the Chinese centuries to render.^{[citation needed]}

Large-scale efforts at translation were undertaken by the Arabs. Having conquered the Greek world, they made Arabic versions of its philosophical and scientific works. During the Middle Ages, some translations of these Arabic versions were made into Latin, chiefly at Córdoba in Spain.^[29] Such Latin translations of Greek and original Arab works of scholarship and science helped advance the development of European Scholasticism.

The broad historic trends in Western translation practice may be illustrated on the example of translation into the English language.

The first fine translations into English were made in the 14th century by Geoffrey Chaucer, who adapted from the Italian of Giovanni Boccaccio in his own Knight's Tale and Troilus and Criseyde; began a translation of the French-language Roman de la Rose; and completed a translation of Boethius from the Latin. Chaucer founded an English poetic tradition on adaptations and translations from those earlier-established literary languages.^[29]

The first great English translation was the Wycliffe Bible (ca. 1382), which showed the weaknesses of an underdeveloped English prose. Only at the end of the 15th century did the great age of English prose translation begin with Thomas Malory's Le Morte Darthur—an adaptation of Arthurian romances so free that it can, in fact, hardly be called a true translation. The first great Tudor translations are, accordingly, the Tyndale New Testament (1525), which influenced the Authorized Version (1611), and Lord Berners' version of Jean Froissart's Chronicles (1523–25).^[29]

Meanwhile, in Renaissance Italy, a new period in the history of translation had opened in Florence with the arrival, at the court of Cosimo de' Medici, of the Byzantine scholar Georgius Gemistus Pletho shortly before the fall of Constantinople to the Turks (1453). A Latin translation of Plato's works was undertaken by Marsilio Ficino. This and Erasmus' Latin edition of the New Testament led to a new attitude to translation. For the first time, readers demanded rigor of rendering, as philosophical and religious beliefs depended on the exact words of Plato, Aristotle and Jesus.^[29]

Non-scholarly literature, however, continued to rely on adaptation. France's Pléiade, England's Tudor poets, and the Elizabethan translators adapted themes by Horace, Ovid, Petrarch and modern Latin writers, forming a new poetic style on those models. The English poets and translators sought to supply a new public, created by the rise of a middle class and the development of printing, with works such as the original authors would have written, had they been writing in England in that day.^[29]

The Elizabethan period of translation saw considerable progress beyond mere paraphrase toward an ideal of stylistic equivalence, but even to the end of this period, which actually reached to the middle of the 17th century, there was no concern for verbal accuracy.^[30]

In the second half of the 17th century, the poet John Dryden sought to make Virgil speak "in words such as he would probably have written if he were living and an Englishman". Dryden, however, discerned no need to emulate the Roman poet's subtlety and concision. Similarly, Homer suffered from Alexander Pope's endeavor to reduce the Greek poet's "wild paradise" to order.^[30]

Throughout the 18th century, the watchword of translators was ease of reading. Whatever they did not understand in a text, or thought might bore readers, they omitted. They cheerfully assumed that their own style of expression was the best, and that texts should be made to conform to it in translation. For scholarship they cared no more than had their predecessors, and they did not shrink from making translations from translations in third languages, or from languages that they hardly knew, or—as in the case of James Macpherson's "translations" of Ossian—from texts that were actually of the "translator's" own composition.^[30]

The 19th century brought new standards of accuracy and style. In regard to accuracy, observes J.M. Cohen, the policy became "the text, the whole text, and nothing but the text", except for any bawdy passages and the addition of copious explanatory footnotes.^[31] In regard to style, the Victorians' aim, achieved through far-reaching metaphrase (literality) or pseudo-metaphrase, was to constantly remind readers that they were reading a foreign classic. An exception was the outstanding translation in this period, Edward FitzGerald's Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam (1859), which achieved its Oriental flavor largely by using Persian names and discreet Biblical echoes and actually drew little of its material from the Persian original.^[30]

In advance of the 20th century, a new pattern was set in 1871 by Benjamin Jowett, who translated Plato into simple, straightforward language. Jowett's example was not followed, however, until well into the new century, when accuracy rather than style became the principal criterion.^[30]

Poetry

Poetry presents special challenges to translators, given the importance of a text's formal aspects, in addition to its content. In his influential 1959 paper "On Linguistic Aspects of Translation", the Russian-born linguist and semiotician Roman Jakobson went so far as to declare that "poetry by definition [is] untranslatable".

In 1974 the American poet James Merrill wrote a poem, "Lost in Translation", which in part explores this idea. The question was also discussed in Douglas Hofstadter's 1997 book, Le Ton beau de Marot; he argues that a good translation of a poem must convey as much as possible of not only its literal meaning but also its form and structure (meter, rhyme or alliteration scheme, etc.).^[32]

Sung texts

Translation of a text that is sung in vocal music for the purpose of singing in another language — sometimes called "singing translation" — is closely linked to translation of poetry because most vocal music, at least in the Western tradition, is set to verse, especially verse in regular patterns with rhyme. (Since the late 19th century, musical setting of prose and free verse has also been practiced in some art music, though popular music tends to remain conservative in its retention of stanzaic forms with or without refrains.) A rudimentary example of translating poetry for singing is church hymns, such as the German chorales translated into English by Catherine Winkworth.^[33]

Translation of sung texts is generally much more restrictive than translation of poetry, because in the former there is little or no freedom to choose between a versified translation and a translation that dispenses with verse structure. One might modify or omit rhyme in a singing translation, but the assignment of syllables to specific notes in the original musical setting places great challenges on the translator. There is the option in prose sung texts, less so in verse, of adding or deleting a syllable here and there by subdividing or combining notes, respectively, but even with prose the process is almost like strict verse translation because of the need to stick as closely as possible to the original prosody of the sung melodic line.

Other considerations in writing a singing translation include repetition of words and phrases, the placement of rests and/or punctuation, the quality of vowels sung on high notes, and rhythmic features of the vocal line that may be more natural to the original language than to the target language. A sung translation may be considerably or completely different from the original, thus resulting in a contrafactum.

Translations of sung texts — whether of the above type meant to be sung or of a more or less literal type meant to be read — are also used as aids to audiences, singers and conductors, when a work is being sung in a language not known to them. The most familiar types are translations presented as subtitles or surtitles projected during opera performances, those inserted into concert programs, and those that accompany commercial audio CDs of vocal music. In addition, professional and amateur singers often sing works in languages they do not know (or do not know well), and translations are then used to enable them to understand the meaning of the words they are singing.

Translators

Attributes

A competent translator is bilingual and bicultural, and has the following intellectual qualities:

• familiarity with the subject matter of the text being translated;
• command of the language (written and spoken), from which he is translating, i.e. the source language;
• command of the language into which he or she is translating, i.e. the target language;
• a profound understanding of the etymological and idiomatic correlations between the two languages; and
• a finely attuned literary sense of when to metaphrase ("translate literally") and when to paraphrase, to so assure true equivalents, between the source-language text and the target-language text.^[34]

Misconceptions

Among laymen, the common misconception is that anyone who can speak a second language (a bilingual man or woman) will make a good translator. The translation community generally accepts that the best translation is that by a translator who is translating into his or her own native language, as it is rare for someone who has learned a second language to be entirely fluent in it.^[18] The competent translator knows the source language, has specific experience in the subject matter of the text, and is a good writer in the target language, skills achieved by being bilingual and bicultural.

Translation has served as a writing school for many writers. Translators, among them monks who propagated Buddhist religious texts in East Asia, and the early modern European translators of the Bible, have shaped the languages into which they translated, thus carrying over knowledge between civilisations and their cultures, by importing source-language loanwords, calques, grammar usages, idioms, and vocabulary to the target languages.

Accreditation

Accreditation of translators is the certification of competence of translators by private or parastatal translation organizations in various countries, based on a variety of requirements. These often include a written examination to attest to the translator's skill.

Such accreditations often have no legal effect, and their value lies in the esteem that the translation organization enjoys as an independent authority on good translation. However, the legal court systems of numerous countries will not admit as evidence any translation performed by a translator they have not certified.^{[citation needed]}

Most translators' organizations refer to this "stamp of approval" as "accreditation," though the American Translators Association's accreditation system is called "certification."

Interpreting

The terms “interpreting” and “interpretation” denote the (simultaneous or the consecutive) facilitation of spoken and sign-language communications, between two or among more speakers who do not speak or sign, the same language. Among interpreters and translators, the word interpreting is preferred to avoid its confusion with “interpretation” as used in philosophy.

Unlike the English language, not every language employs two discrete words translation (texts) and interpreting (speech) to denote and distinguish the activities. For example, in Polish, a "translation" is "przekład" and "tłumaczenie"; both "translator" and "interpreter" are "tłumacz." For a time in the 18th century, however, for "translator," some writers used the word, "przekładowca", which is now disused.^[35] Moreover, Anglophones do not always observe the linguistic distinction, between interpreting and translation, often mistakenly using the terms as synonymous.

Machine translation

Machine translation (MT) is a procedure whereby a computer program analyzes a source text and produces a target text without further human intervention. In reality, however, machine translation typically does involve human intervention, in the form of pre-editing and post-editing. An exception to that rule might be, e.g., the translation of technical specifications (strings of technical terms and adjectives), using a dictionary-based machine-translation system.

To date, machine translation—a major goal of natural-language processing—has met with limited success.

Machine translation has been brought to a large public by tools available on the Internet, such as Yahoo!'s Babel Fish, Babylon, and StarDict. These tools produce a "gisting translation" — a rough translation that, with luck, "gives the gist" of the source text. Google translate has a "read-aloud feature" that assists pronuciation in learning a language.

With proper terminology work, with preparation of the source text for machine translation (pre-editing), and with re-working of the machine translation by a professional human translator (post-editing), commercial machine-translation tools can produce useful results, especially if the machine-translation system is integrated with a translation-memory or globalization-management system.^[36]

In regard to texts with limited ranges of vocabulary and simple sentence structure (e.g., weather reports), machine translation can deliver results that do not require much human intervention to be useful. Also, the use of a controlled language, combined with a machine-translation tool, will typically generate largely comprehensible translations.

Relying exclusively on unedited machine translation ignores the fact that communication in human language is context-embedded and that it takes a person to comprehend the context of the original text with a reasonable degree of probability. It is certainly true that even purely human-generated translations are prone to error. Therefore, to ensure that a machine-generated translation will be useful to a human being and that publishable-quality translation is achieved, such translations must be reviewed and edited by a human.^[37] Claude Piron wrote that machine translation, at its best, automates the easier part of a translator's job; the harder and more time-consuming part usually involves doing extensive research to resolve ambiguities in the source text, which the grammatical and lexical exigencies of the target language require to be resolved.^[38] Such research is a necessary prelude to the pre-editing necessary in order to provide input for machine-translation software such that the output will not be meaningless.^[39]

CAT

Computer-assisted translation (CAT), also called "computer-aided translation," "machine-aided human translation" (MAHT) and "interactive translation," is a form of translation wherein a human translator creates a target text with the assistance of a computer program. The machine supports a human translator.

Computer-assisted translation can include standard dictionary and grammar software. The term, however, normally refers to a range of specialized programs available to the translator, including translation-memory, terminology-management, concordance, and alignment programs.

With the Internet, translation software can help non-native-speaking individuals understand web pages published in other languages. Whole-page-translation tools are of limited utility, however, since they offer only a limited potential understanding of the original author's intent and context; translated pages tend to be more humorous and confusing than enlightening.

Interactive translations with pop-up windows are becoming more popular. These tools show one or more possible equivalents for each word or phrase. Human operators merely need to select the likeliest equivalent as the mouse glides over the foreign-language text. Possible equivalents can be grouped by pronunciation.

Internet

Web-based human translation is generally favored by companies and individuals that seek more accurate translators. In view of the frequent inaccuracy of machine translators, human translation remains the most reliable, most accurate form of translation available.^[40] With the recent emergence of translation crowdsourcing, translation-memory techniques, and internet applications, translation companies and agencies have been able to provide on-demand human-translation services to SMBs, individuals, and enterprises.

While not instantaneous like its machine counterparts such as Google Translate and Yahoo! Babel Fish, web-based human translation is becoming increasingly popular as a solution for relatively fast, accurate translation for business communications, legal documents, medical records, and software localization.^[41] This solution also appeals to private users for websites and blogs through the "string" system that enables websites to localize easily.^[42]

The process for web-based human translation is relatively simple. Many human translation agencies such as Speaklike, MyGengo, and Welocalize that are on-demand, real-time-saving companies, users upload documents, text, chats, or emails to translation companies' websites, and have them translated by translators living around the world.^[43] By comparison, other translation services such as TransPerfect and SDI Media Group have separate, custom-based processes that nonetheless focus on human translation.

See also

• American Literary Translators Association
• Applied linguistics
• Bilingual dictionary
• Chinese translation theory
• Code mixing
• Contrastive linguistics
• False cognate
• "False friend"
• Hindi to Punjabi Machine Translation System
• Homophonic translation
• International Federation of Translators
• Language industry
• Language interpretation
• Lexicography
• Literal translation
• Machine translation
• Medical translation
• Mobile translation
• Phono-semantic matching
• Technical translation
• Transcription (linguistics)
• Translating for legal equivalence
• Translation associations
• Translation-quality standards
• Transliteration
• Untranslatability

Notes

1. ^ The Oxford Companion to the English Language, Tom McArthur, Ed., 1992, pp. 1,051–054
2. ^ by contrast, language interpretation (spoken and sign-language) no doubt antedates written language. For example, incantations in unwritten Evenki language were interpreted into unwritten Sakha language.^{[citation needed]}
3. ^ J.M. Cohen, "Translation", Encyclopedia Americana, 1986, vol. 27, p. 12.
4. ^ Christopher Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", The Polish Review, vol. XXVIII, no. 2, 1983, pp. 84-87.
5. ^ Andrew Wilson, Translators on Translating: Inside the Invisible Art, Vancouver, CCSP Press, 2009.
6. ^ M. Snell-Hornby, The Turns of Translation Studies: New Paradigms or Shifting Viewpoints?, Philadelphia, John Benjamins, 2006, p. 133.
7. ^ W.J. Hutchins, Early Years in Machine Translation: Memoirs and Biographies of Pioneers, Amsterdam, John Benjamins, 2000.
8. ^ ^{a b} Christopher Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 83.
9. ^ Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 83.
10. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 84.
11. ^ The Columbia Encyclopedia Fifth Edition, 1994, p. 2,361
12. ^ Typically, analytic languages.
13. ^ Typically, synthetic languages.
14. ^ A greater translation problem is translating terms denoting cultural concepts that have no equivalent in the target language. Some examples are in the article Translating the 17th of May into English and other horror stories "Translating the 17th of May into English and other horror stories," retrieved 2010-04-15. For full comprehension, such situations require a gloss.
15. ^ ^{a b} Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 85.
16. ^ Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", pp. 85-86.
17. ^ L.G. Kelly, cited in Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 86.
18. ^ ^{a b} Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 86.
19. ^ Cited by Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", p. 87, from Ignacy Krasicki, "O tłumaczeniu ksiąg" ("On Translating Books"), in Dzieła wierszem i prozą (Works in Verse and Prose), 1803, reprinted in Edward Balcerzan, ed., Pisarze polscy o sztuce przekładu, 1440–1974: Antologia (Polish Writers on the Art of Translation, 1440–1974: an Anthology), p. 79.
20. ^ His comparison commented upon the translations of the humanist Perrot Nicolas d’Ablancourt (1606-1664), saying that Elles me rappellent une femme que j'ai beaucoup aimé à Tours, et qui était belle mais infidèle. Quoted in Amparo Hurtado Albir, La notion de fidélité en traduction, Paris, Didier Érudition, 1990, p. 231.
21. ^ Antoine Berman, L'épreuve de l'étranger, 1984.
22. ^ Lawrence Venuti, "Call to Action", in The Translator's Invisibility, 1994.
23. ^ Christopher Kasparek, "The Translator's Endless Toil", pp. 83-87.
24. ^ Crystal, Scott. "Back Translation: Same questions – different continent" (PDF). Communicate (London: Association of Translation Companies) (Winter 2004): 5. http://www.atc.org.uk/winter2004.pdf. Retrieved 2007-11-20.
25. ^ Mark Twain, The Jumping Frog: In English, Then in French, and Then Clawed Back into a Civilized Language Once More by Patient, Unremunerated Toil, illustrated by F. Strothman, New York and London, Harper & Brothers, Publishers, MCMIII [1903].
26. ^ Czesław Miłosz, The History of Polish Literature, pp. 193–94.
27. ^ J.M. Cohen, p. 12.
28. ^ J.M Cohen, pp. 12-13.
29. ^ ^{a b c d e} J.M. Cohen, p. 13.
30. ^ ^{a b c d e} J.M. Cohen, p. 14.
31. ^ For instance, Henry Benedict Mackey's translation of St. Francis de Sales's "Treatise on the Love of God" consistently omits the saint's analogies comparing God to a nursing mother, references to Bible stories such as the rape of Tamar, and so forth.
32. ^ A discussion of Hofstadter's otherwise latitudinarian views on translation is found in Tony Dokoupil, "Translation: Pardon My French: You Suck at This," Newsweek, May 18, 2009, p. 10.
33. ^ For another example of poetry translation, including translation of sung texts, see Rhymes from Russia.
34. ^ *Christopher Kasparek, "Prus' Pharaoh and Curtin's Translation," The Polish Review, vol. XXXI, nos. 2–3 (1986), p. 135.
35. ^ Edward Balcerzan, Pisarze polscy o sztuce przekładu, 1440–1974: Antologia (Polish Writers on the Art of Translation, 1440–1974: an Anthology), 1977, passim.
36. ^ Vashee, Kirti (2007). "Statistical machine translation and translation memory: An integration made in heaven!". ClientSide News Magazine 7 (6): 18–20. https://webmailcluster.perfora.net/xml/deref?link=http%3A%2F%2Frs6.net%2Ftn.jsp%3Ft%3D8mtygbcab.0.ksqvgbcab.ro78ttn6.33435%26ts%3DS0250%26p%3Dhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.clientsidenews.com%252Fdownloads%252FCSNV7I6.zip.
37. ^ J.M. Cohen observes (p.14): "Scientific translation is the aim of an age that would reduce all activities to techniques. It is impossible however to imagine a literary-translation machine less complex than the human brain itself, with all its knowledge, reading, and discrimination."
38. ^ Claude Piron, Le défi des langues (The Language Challenge), Paris, L'Harmattan, 1994.
39. ^ See the annually performed NIST tests since 2001 and Bilingual Evaluation Understudy
40. ^ http://www.economist.com/node/15582327?story_id=15582327&source=hptextfeature
41. ^ http://media.venturebeat.com/2010/03/26/speaklike-offers-human-powered-translation-for-blogs/
42. ^ http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/01/11/AR2010011100701.html
43. ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/click_online/8640862.stm

References

• Balcerzan, Edward, ed., Pisarze polscy o sztuce przekładu, 1440-1974: Antologia (Polish Writers on the Art of Translation, 1440-1974: an Anthology), Poznań, Wydawnictwo Poznańskie, 1977.
• Berman, Antoine, L'épreuve de l'étranger, 1984, excerpted in English in Lawrence Venuti, editor, The Translation Studies Reader, 2002 (2nd edition, 2004).
• Cohen, J.M., "Translation", Encyclopedia Americana, 1986, vol. 27, pp. 12–15.
• Darwish, Ali, "Towards a Theory of Constraints in Translation," 1999. (@turjuman Online)
• Galassi, Jonathan et al., "Como Conversazione: On Translation," The Paris Review, 2000, no. 155, ISSN 0031-2037, pp. 255–312. Poets and critics Seamus Heaney, Charles Tomlinson, Tim Parks and others discuss the theory and practice of translation.
• Gouadec, Daniel, Translation as a Profession, Amsterdam, John Benjamins, 2007, ISBN 978 90 272 1681 6.
• Kasparek, Christopher, "The Translator's Endless Toil", The Polish Review, vol. XXVIII, no. 2, 1983, pp. 83–87. Includes a discussion of European-language cognates of the term, "translation".
• Kasparek, Christopher, "Prus' Pharaoh and Curtin's Translation," The Polish Review, vol. XXXI, nos. 2–3 (1986), pp. 127–35.
• Kelly, L.G. (1979). The True Interpreter: a History of Translation Theory and Practice in the West. New York, St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-82057-7.
• Miłosz, Czesław, The History of Polish Literature, 2nd ed., Berkeley, University of California Press, 1983, ISBN 0-520-04477-0.
• Muegge, Uwe (2005). Translation Contract: A Standards-Based Model Solution. AuthorHouse. ISBN 1-4184-1636-3.
• Parks, Tim, Translating Style: A Literary Approach to Translation—A Translation Approach to Literature, Manchester, St. Jerome, 2007, ISBN 1-905763-04-2.
• Piron, Claude, Le défi des langues — Du gâchis au bon sens (The Language Challenge: From Chaos to Common Sense), Paris, L'Harmattan, 1994.
• Rose, Marilyn Gaddis, guest editor, Translation: Agent of Communication (a special issue of Pacific Moana Quarterly, 5:1), 1980.
• Schleiermacher, Friedrich, "Über die verschiedenen Methoden des Übersetzens", 1813, reprinted as "On the Different Methods of Translating" in Lawrence Venuti, editor, The Translation Studies Reader, 2002, 2nd edition 2004.
• Simms, Norman, editor (1983). Nimrod's Sin: Treason and Translation in a Multilingual World.
• Tatarkiewicz, Władysław, A History of Six Ideas: an Essay in Aesthetics, translated from the Polish by Christopher Kasparek, The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff, 1980, ISBN 83-01-00824-5.
• Venuti, Lawrence (1994). The Translator's Invisibility. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-11538-8.

External links

• Translation at the Open Directory Project
• Early Theories of Translation at Project Gutenberg 1920 text by Flora Ross Amos from the series Columbia University studies in English and comparative literature.
• UNESCO Clearing House for Literary Translation

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